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Mechanism of a Friedel-Crafts Alkylation (BioChem) and its role in combating illness

Firstly, the Friedel-Crafts Alkylation reaction synthesizes alkylated products, such as: alkylbenzenes. For instance, the reaction involves the alkylation/an addition of an alkyl group to an aromatic ring. Alongside, a catalyst (most commonly used is AlCl3) since it can act as a Lewis acid and generates an electrophile through the process of the reaction. Moreover, the Friedel-Crafts Alkylation reaction is recognized as an electrophilic aromatic substitution reaction. In other words, within the reaction a carbocation is attacked by a pi bond from an aromatic ring, resulting in the replacement of one of the aromatic protons by an alkyl group. All in all, the reaction process is widely utilized in numerous real world applications. For example, petroleum refining, medication modification in pharmacology, and pharmaceuticals. More importantly, alkylating drugs are utilized in treating multiple diseases, illnesses, and issues in the human body. For example, in the treatment of: brain tumo
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Production of Aspirin (BioChem)

   the synthesis of aspirin involves: the acetylation of salicylic acid with acetic anhydride. For example, catalysts are crucial to the mechanism, because this is a nucleophilic substitution reaction at a carbonyl carbon. Additionally, the utilization of a general acid catalyst (sulfuric acid), which will protonate the carbonyl oxygen: allowing it to be more susceptible to attack. Similarly, a Lewis acid catalyst will be used to deliver a similar response, specifically: boron trifluoride etherate. Alternatively, there will be use of a Lewis base catalyst (pyridine), which will be used to react with the acetic anhydride to generate a reactive species. Lastly, the final catalyst/general base catalyst, will complete its function via proton abstraction at an intermediary stage. For instance, the catalyst is sodium acetate. Finally, this experiment will use quantitative measures to calculate the relative catalytic ability for the reaction. For example, this exothermic reaction will use a
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What are Biogenic Amines?

       a biogenic amine is a substance with one or multiple amine groups. A majority of biogenic amines form via decarboxylation of amino acids, animation or transamination of aldehydes and ketones. Moreover, there are two divisions of biogenic amines within this experiment: catecholamines and indoleamines. For example, there are three catecholamine neurotransmitters: dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine. As well as, indoleamines, including: tryptophan and serotonin. Furthermore, the catecholamines all arise from a common precursor, known as tyrosine. Firstly, in the synthesis of the catecholamines: the enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase synthesizes DOPA. Also, tyrosine hydroxylase is rate-limiting in relation to the synthesis of the three catecholamines. Additionally, the biosynthetic pathway of the catecholamines is: tyrosine→ DOPA → dopamine → norepinephrine → epinephrine along with multiple enzymes responsible for formation and degradation. For example, tyrosine hydroxylase, DOPA dec
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The Use Of HPLC-EC: Hydrodynamic Voltammograms (Neuropharmacology)

   High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection: is an analytical technique utilized to separate, quantify, and identify the contents of a mixture. For instance, chromatography is the separation of a mixture by passing it through a medium, where components flow at differing rates. In other words, a fluid solvent known as the mobile phase is continuously pumped throughout the system. For example, the mobile phase carries the differing components of the mixture/sample and passes through a column, known as the stationary phase. Moreover, sample separation is dependent on the various chemical dynamics of the mobile phase, stationary phase, and the sample itself. Additionally, adjustments and modifications can be made to both mobile and stationary phases to yield diverse responses. For example, a specific sample can potentially have a stronger interaction with the stationary phase. Whereas, a weaker interaction with the mobile phase. As a result, any modifica
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The specific causes of deviated readings, on Agarose Gels.

   The issues presented by the agarose gel can be understood and linked to specific causes. For instance, if the DNA bands appear to be faint, a sufficient period of time was not utilized to stain the gel (EDVOTEK). As a result, the staining process is required to be repeated. Moreover, the issue pertaining to the lack of samples and bands present within the gel, is potentially a result of the following: the Drosophila DNA sample had an improper concentration, the sample was potentially degraded, or incorrect volumes of primer and DNA were added to the PCR reaction (EDVOTEK). For example, if it is determined that there is an incorrect concentration of the Drosophila DNA sample, it is reasonable to believe that a poor DNA extraction was conducted. Therefore, the correlating step within the laboratory process is to be repeated for an accurate result. Secondly, if it is understood that the sample has become degraded, then the DNA not used post extraction: is to be stored -20 0 C. Lastly,
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Results of PCR Via Electrophoresis: (Laboratory Mechanism of Genotyping Fruit Flies)

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\ The gel figure displays the PCR products from the wild and white genotypes of the common fruit fly Drosophila. Additionally, lane 1 consists of the DNA ladder. Whereas, lane 2 consists of the control PCR product. More specifically, the only observable band within lane 2, was the 200 bp band. Moreover, within lane 3 there are no observable DNA bands present. Lastly, lane 4 consists of the PCR products from the wild-type flies, the only band present was the 220 bp band. As previously discussed, the physical basis and observable results of the experimental process and mechanism, can be seen within Figure 1: the agarose gel containing the PCR products from wild and white genotypes of Drosophila. For instance, four lanes were utilized in this experimental process. For example, lane 1 is the DNA standard marker, also classified as the DNA ladder. Whereas, lane 2 consisted of the PCR products of the control. The third lane consisted of the PCR products from white-eyed flies. Whereas, the
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Laboratory Mechanism of Genotyping Fruit Flies (Genetics) Part 2

  Module II: Amplification of the Extracted DNA Two PCR tubes were labeled “wild” and “white”, in the beginning of Module II. Additionally, each PCR tube already had a PCR EdvoBead. Regardless, 20 microliters of Primer Mix and 5 microliters of extracted DNA from Module I was added to each tube. Moreover, after the addition of Primer Mix and extracted DNA, the PCR samples were gently mixed. As a result, the samples were observed to have an orange mixture. To collect the samples at the bottom of the tubes, the samples were centrifuged. In addition, to the two samples, a positive control tube was obtained. Lastly, the samples, including the positive control tube were all placed in the ice chest for storage. The experimental process was put on hold for approximately 2 weeks and resumed in Module III: Separation of PCR products by Electrophoresis In any case, the protocol is followed thoroughly. However, due to efficiently utilizing time in the lab period, a separate group of students ha
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